The British Museum: the Elgin Marbles and their Journey to UK

The British Museum is a magnificent structure whose current edifice was erected in the 19th century (“British”). The museum houses artifacts from a variety of time periods, contains a number of artwork galleries, and its treasures come from all over the world.

The museum’s collection dates back to 1753 when the British government bought the 80,000 piece collection of plants, fossils, coins, medals, and prints from British doctor Sir Hans Sloane (“British”). Today’s museum now boasts to have the largest museum collection in the world (“British”). The exhibit in the British Museum that peaked my interest the most was that of the remains from the Athenian Parthenon.

After studying ancient Grecian architecture in my Humanities class last year, I was awed and amazed by the magnificent detail that is still in tact on the huge portions of the Parthenon that I had only seen in books and learned about in lectures. Seeing these works of genius in real life changed my perspective on ancient Greece because I could see their handiwork for myself, and I could physically observe the representations of their traditions that lasted for centuries, and continue to fascinate many today.


The acquisition of such large, beautiful pieces of history is an interesting story. The Parthenon was the biggest draw for Western visitors to Athens (St. Clair, 47). The Earl of Elgin was a British Ambassador to the Ottoman Court in the 19th century (Cook, 4). At the time in which the Elgin marbles were purchased by the British government, sculpture was the least flourishing medium of art in England (St. Clair, 245). While he was serving as an ambassador Elgin had collected a fantastic collection of “marbles” – sculptures, architectural fragments and inscriptions from the Parthenon (Cook, 4). In August 1800 Lord Elgin and his artists came to Athens with the goal to “improve the arts in great Britain” (St. Clair, 43). This extraordinary collection is known today as the Elgin Marbles. Elgin convinced the House of Commons to purchase this large collection in the early 19th century (Cook, 4). Lord Duveen in 1962 commissioned the building of an exhibition gallery in the British Museum specifically for the collection’s sculptures from the Parthenon (Cook, 4).

The Parthenon is dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, and it was built between 447 and 438 B.C. on the top of the Acropolis (Cook, 5). It is world-renowned for its magnificent symmetry, designs, and outward-showing of respect for the Greek gods.

Pericles, a statesman in Athens during time of the Parthenon’s re-construction, oversaw a huge building effort during his reign, including many of the Acropolis’ structures (Cook, 10). The pediments, metopes and friezes are the forms of marble sculptures on the temple, and as Plutarch observed, “the most amazing feature of the Periclean building programme was the speed with which the actual buildings were completed (Cook, 14). In 490 BC as well as 480 BC Greece’s city states on the mainland were invaded by the armies of Darius and Xerxes, of the Persian empire (St. Clair, 47). It was not until 480 BC, however, that the Athenians were forced to leave their city and therefore, the Acropolis was occupied, burned and desecrated by the Persian armies (St. Clair, 47). Pericles oversaw the rebuilding efforts, which included taking the marble of the older temples in Athens to rebuild the walls surrounding the Acropolis, whereas the buildings inside were completely redone (St. Clair, 47).

Works Cited

"British Museum." AboutBritain.com. 2008. AboutBritain.com. 05 May 2008 .

Cook, B.F. The Elgin Marbles. London: British Museum Publications, 1984.

St. Clair, William. Lord Elgin and the Marbles. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1983.

Stonehenge: the Unanswered Questions and Intriguing Mystery

Henges exist all around Britain. They are, by definition, “circular banks of earth paralleled by an internal ditch.” (Alexander, 36). Why is it, then, that Stonehenge in particular has captured the attention of so many, and has been a cause of mystery and intrigue for centuries? What did the Neolithic people who built Stonehenge see its purpose to be? Why were the stones hauled such a huge distance? All these unanswered questions contribute to the intrigue and wonder I felt when I first saw Stonehenge.

I imagined the structure to be much larger. As we approached the site on our way from Stourhead, I was amazed that I didn’t spot it from the road, and I was even more surprised when I first saw it from the entrance ramp to notice it was not a perfect circle. It just proves that preconceived notions need not be confirmed in order to be impressed and awed by seeing Stonehenge and recognizing it for the historical mystery it is.

Stonehenge was erected between 3000 BC and 1600 BC (English). It is a magnificent stone monument modeled on timber precedents and made of bluestones from Wales (Alexander, 36). The largest stones which comprise Stonehenge weigh up to 50 tons (Alexander, 36). The Neolithic people who erected Stonehenge hauled, floated and dragged these apparently precious stones from Wales all the way to their current site (Alexander, 36).

The approximate 1400 years in which it took to construct also remains an unanswered question. To consider the immense effort it took to put together such an organized and seemingly logical structure is mind-boggling. Although the quest for its true purpose has yet to be fully discovered, it is apparent that its purposes might have been sacred, and therefore, the sacrifice of the builders is not to be ridiculed but respected.

Animal bones and deer antlers were used by the builders to prepare the ground for Stonehenge (English). Balls of stone, known as mauls, were used as hammers to shape the stones (English). Keeping in mind these primitive and laborious means of construction, it is no wonder it took so long to construct. Stonehenge’s purpose is predicted as being sacred, and something that a huge following was completely devoted to. Several different archaeologists hypothesize several different uses for Stonehenge – a sun temple, astronomical calendar, city of the ancestral dead, center of healing, stone representation of the gods, symbol of status and power, etc. (Alexander, 59). Some archaeologists believe it was the focal point of the ancient ceremonial structures that were in the area (English).

Through means of radiocarbon dating, experts are able to categorize the construction of the current-day Stonehenge into three phases (AboutStonehenge). In the first period there was a circular enclosure surrounded by two banks and an entrance on the northeast side, as well as an upright stone standing a few meters away from the entrance. Archaeologists discovered that when someone stands in the very middle of Stonehenge and faces this entrance, they can see the sun rise just to the left of the outer stone on midsummer morning (AboutStonehenge). The second phase introduced the blue stones from the Preseli Mountains in western Wales, as well as other modifications to the initial phase’s structure, including the addition of post holes (AboutStonehenge). The third phase brought about the most changes, which also meant it lasted the longest amount of time (AboutStonehenge). 82 standing bluestones were added in the shape of a circle, but this was dismantled about 100 years later (AboutStonehenge). 30 sandstones were then arranged in the shape of a circle, with the stones on top and the altar stone was also installed (AboutStonehenge).

The splendor and spectacle of Stonehenge is seemingly random because it also appears out of place in the English countryside. To consider the building process, speculate about the purpose it served, as well as wonder about the unique form of structure it is made my visit to Stonehenge so much more meaningful and I accepted its unanswered questions as gifts from history.

Works Cited

AboutStonehenge.info. "Stonehenge Construction Periods, Phases, and History." About Stonehenge. 16 Jun 2008. AboutStonehenge.info. 12 Jun 2008 .

Alexander, Caroline. "If the Stones Could Speak." National Geographic June 2008: 36-59.

English Heritage. "Stonehenge-Forever a Mystery." English Heritage. English Heritage Newsletter. 12 Jun 2008 .

St. Paul's Cathedral: the Vision of Christopher Wren

Although natural and simple beauties are among my most favorite parts of England, I find that few things can compare to the amazement I felt upon seeing St. Paul’s Cathedral. It has been called a masterpiece, “one of the world’s best-loved buildings,” and was built by one of the greatest and most prolific architects of London – Christopher Wren (“About”). The present-day edifice took from 1675 to 1710 to build and has stood the test of time, including the blitz of World War 2 (“About”). The process of putting the various used and raw materials together to create such a magnificent cathedral is very difficult to fully comprehend, and it is amazing to consider the artistic genius and vision that was required in order to see the great potential that could become St. Paul’s.

A cathedral dedicated to St. Paul has been on the site since 604 A.D., and the current cathedral is only the fourth building to inhabit the location (“About”). The second St. Paul’s cathedral was, in 1313, the third longest church in Europe – at 596 feet long – and in 1314 it was the tallest cathedral in Europe, standing at 489 feet tall (“St Paul’s”).

Wren became involved with this holy site when he made a proposal for the restoration work that was to be done on the old – third – St. Paul’s Cathedral (Ewin, 6). Wren’s ideas were considered radical, and were looked down upon by the conservative committee members, especially his thoughts on constructing a dome over the top of the crossing – a radical look to add to the London skyline, as well as the country of England, for that day (Ewin, 7). His ideas were, however, accepted as the design, and an estimate was prepared (Ewin, 7). Only 5 days later the Great Fire broke out in a baker’s shop on Pudding Lane, and it carried throughout the city, completely destroying the Old St. Paul’s (“St Paul’s”). When the old cathedral was destroyed, Evelyn described it as “thus lay in ashes that most venerable Church, one of the antientist Pieces of early Piety in the Christian World, beside neere 100 more” (Ewin, 8).

After the fire settled, Wren surveyed the ruins of the previous cathedral which stood on the site in order to tell the Dean of the cathedral, Dr. William Sancroft, a location to make safe for the purpose of temporarily holding services (Ewin, 8). Wren also made a proposal to the King only two weeks after the fire in order to help reconstruct the city, of which the new St. Paul’s would be a focal point (Ewin, 8). After Wren was made Surveyor-General in 1669, he presented his first proposal, although it was rejected by the public and the clergy (Ewin, 9). The design, however, included a rectangular nave where the congregation would be seated in galleries, looking inwards (Ewin, 9). It was rejected on the basis that it was “not grandiose enough to be appropriate to a prosperous capital city” (Ewin, 9). Not discouraged, Wren presented his second proposal in 1673 and called it the Great Model Design (Ewin, 9). This was accepted by the King but rejected by the Commission on the grounds that the shape would not allow the choir to be built before the rest of the cathedral, and also because the stalls would be in a circle (Ewin, 10). Wren’s third attempt included a long cruciform plan which would then allow the choir to be built before the rest of the building, as well as the OK needed to begin work with the assurance that design specifics could be changed as time went on (Ewin, 11). ).

As far as the material that was used for construction of the new St. Paul’s, the old cathedral’s stone and lead was salvaged (Ewin, 11). The first service at the new St. Paul’s was attended in 1697 (“About”). In the mid 19th century Queen Victoria complained of the “dreary and dingy” interior of the church, and the intricate mosaics were installed (“About”).

Works Cited

"About St Paul’s." St. Paul's Cathedral. 2008. Dean and Chapter St. Paul's. 02 Jun 2008 .

Ewin, E.T. Floyd. The Splendour of St. Paul’s. Jarrold and Sons Ltd., Norwich: 1973. book

"St. Paul's Cathedral - Origins." Britain Express. 2008. Britain Express - The UK Travel and Heritage Guide. 18 Jun 2008 .

Inside picture of St. Paul's courtesy of http://www.qedata.se/bilder/historik/stpaul.jpg

Westminster Abbey: the Order of the Bath

Present-day Westminster Abbey has the largest Gothic vault in England (reaching a height of 102 feet), has stood since the 13th century when it was rebuilt by King Henry III, and houses the tombs of 3,300 people who have significantly shaped world history (“History and Research”). The ceremony and splendor of the Abbey is epitomized in its many weddings, burials, and other ceremonies of tradition. One of these ceremonies is the Order of the Bath, a military order established by George I on 18 May 1723 (Kightly, 180).

The order is under the Orders of Chivalry, which means it is a group of knights united with particular rules and a mode of conduct, and appear unique by wearing special insignia and badges (Kightly, 178). It is the “premiere meritorious Order of the Crown,” and in the military division, it is regarded as the highest class of British military honor obtainable (Cavill). There are also different levels of honor within the Order of the Bath; there is the Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commanders, and Companions, though only the most senior – the Knights Grand Cross – are able to sit in the stalls of the Henry VII Chapel of Westminster Abbey during installation ceremonies held there, although the stalls were originally intended for the abbey’s monks when they worshipped in the Henry VII chapel (Cavill). As a result, when a knight dies and his stall becomes vacant, the position in the highest level is offered to the next senior Grand Cross knight on an “allotment basis” between the Military and Civil Divisions (Cavill). These Knights will oftentimes have their banners, crests and stall plates affixed upon their stalls (Cavill).

The Order of the Bath derives its name from the ritual bath done by both a to-be medieval knight before his knighting ceremony, as well as monarchs who took baths before their coronation ceremonies (Kightly, 180). The order has been in existence since at least Henry IV’s coronation in 1399 (Kightly, 180). It is considered a purifying ceremony for those being knighted, and added prestige comes as a result, which is demonstrated by the wearing of crimson robes at certain state occasions (Kightly, 180). These knights were not formed into an organized, unified body until King George I revived the order in 1725 as a reward for select sailors and soldiers (Kightly, 180). Ladies were also able to receive the honor in 1971 - Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, became the first Dame Grand Cross (Cavill).

One of the honorable knights of the Order of the Bath was Sir George Yonge, whose title included the esteem of being called one of “Baronet…one of His Majesty’s most Honorable Privy Council, Governor and Commander in Chief of His Majesty’s Castle, Town and Settlement of the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, and of the territories and dependencies thereof, and Ordinary and Vice Admiral of the same” (Yonge). With his ascendance to the Order of the Bath came various other titles and responsibilities under his jurisdiction. Sir Yonge oversaw the supply of money in this particular territory of the Cape of Good Hope (Yonge).

The Henry VII chapel of Westminster Abbey was commissioned by King Henry VII in 1503 for the purpose of a burial chapel for Henry VI (Cavill). Henry VI was, however, never buried there, but Henry VII rests there along with his wife, Elizabeth of York (Cavill). The Perpendicular-style chapel includes the markings in stone, wood and bronze of several royal emblems, including Tudor roses, the portcullis of the Beauforts, the Welsh dragon, the greyhound of Richmond , the fleurs-de-lis, and the Lion of England (Cavill). Originally there were 107 carved statues of saints in the niches above the stalls in the chapel; though 95 still remain intact it is considered one of the best and largest collections of late medieval statues in England (Cavill).

Works Cited

Cavill, Suzanne. "The Most Honourable Order of the Bath." Heraldicsculpture.com. 2008. Ian G. Brennan. 17 Jun 2008 .

"History and Research." Westminster Abbey from 1065 to Today. Dean and Chapter of Westminster. 17 Jun 2008 .

Kightly, Charles. The Customs and Ceremonies of Britain. Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, 1986.

Yonge, George. By His Excellency Sir George Yonge, Baronet; Knight of the most Honorable Order of the Bath; ... Governor and Commander in Chief of His Majesty's Castle, Town, and Settlement of the Cape of Good Hope,. Cape Town: 1800.

Picture of Henry VII chapel courtesy of http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Cities/wld/01620/01620j.jpg

Tower of London: the Crown Jewels - a National Treasure

The Tower of London complex is most notorious for serving as a prison (Leapman, 124). The greatest historical treasure, in my opinion, within this complex is the British Crown Jewels. The Crown Jewels are comprised of 23,578 gems, all of which are housed within the walls of the Tower of London (“Crown”); among them is the largest diamond in the world which adorns the royal sceptre (Leapman, 125). This collection of exquisite gems is, arguably, the most famous collection of jewellery in the world, and in my personal opinion, it is also the most stunning.

Upon entering the Crown Jewels exhibit I was dumbfounded at the fantastic quality and grandeur of the collection. Diamonds twinkle in the light, and the deep emeralds and rubies add touches of magnificence as only these rare treasures can.

The collection consists of the various crowns of the British monarchs, the 23 lbs. golden pallium (which is the royal mantle used in coronation ceremonies since George IV in 1820), orb, sceptre, bracelets worn by Elizabeth II, golden dishes of historical significance, and other royal treasures (Imboden). These items are significant to the British royalty for use in coronation ceremonies, as well as other events in the past as well as the future.

The jewels which comprise the Crown Jewels are some of the largest, and most famous jewels in the world. For example, the Cullinan I diamond rests on top of the royal scepter. This precious gem’s history extends back to the beginning of the 20th century. The rough Cullinan crystal was casually discovered in 1905 by Mr. Frederick Wells – the superintendent of the Premier Mine in South Africa – as he was making an inspection of the mine (Thompson). It is the largest gem-quality diamond ever discovered and weighed 3106 carats, or about 1⅓ pounds (diamonds). It was presented to King Edward VII on his 66th birthday in 1907, and the jewel was later sent to England and insured for $1,250,000 (Thompson). It was cut by the famous Asscher’s Diamond Co. in Amsterdam (Thompson). The ‘First Star of Africa’ as it is known today adorns the British royal scepter, and weighs 530.20 carats (Thompson).

The only attempt at stealing the crown jewels was on the 9 May 1671 by Colonel Blood – and proved to be nearly successful (“Colonel”). A lieutenant in Oliver Cromwell’s army to fight against the Crown, Blood was assigned to serve in the Commission of Peace, a “body of spies responsible for subverting Royalist activities” (Diehl, 143). Blood was always a covertly immoral man, who “had a natural talent for duplicity and deceit,” as he often made large profits during the war by playing both sides, and setting aside some of the profits before sharing with the rest of his men (Diehl, 143). Even after the war, Blood had numerous assistant spies that would help him in his acts of thievery (Diehl, 144).

After Cromwell’s death, Charles II was called back to England from his exile in France (Diehl, 144). It was at this time that Charles II commissioned the creation of new crown jewels, and the Martin Tower within the walls of the Tower of London was converted to the Jewel House (Diehl, 144). In order to pay for the making of the new jewels, Charles II demanded that old supporters of Cromwell’s government be made to forfeit their land and money – including Blood who vowed to take revenge on the King (Diehl, 145). Blood and his gang were determined to drive the English out of Ireland, and after three foiled plots, Blood determined to escape from London – his journey would be financed by the Crown Jewels (Diehl, 146).

After posing as a reverend, Blood and his gang killed the Jewel House keeper, smashed the imperial state crown and hid it under his cloak, sawed the sceptre in half, and his accomplice Robert Perot put the orb down his pants (“Colonel”). As they were about to make their hasty exit, the murdered keeper’s son found the thieves in the midst of their crime and sounded the alarm (“Colonel”). Blood was imprisoned but King Charles II pardoned him and also gave him a pension (“Colonel”). After the incident occurred, security for the Crown Jewels was heightened by placing iron bars over the wooden ones meant to protect the Regalia, and banning visitors from touching the Crown Jewels (“Colonel”).

Works Cited

“Colonel Blood’s Raid.” Historic Royal Palaces. 2008. Historic Royal Palaces. 02 Jun 2008 http://www.hrp.org.uk/TowerOfLondon/stories/anattempttostealthecrownjewels.aspx

"Crown Jewels." Historic Royal Palaces. 2008. Historic Royal Palaces. 02 Jun 2008 .

Diehl, Daniel & Mark P. Donnelly. Tales from the Tower of London. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 2004.

Imboden, Durant. "Tower of London." Europe for Visitors. 2008. Durant and Cheryl Imboden. 10 Jun 2008 .

Leapman, Michael. Portrait of Britain. New York City: DK Publishing Inc., 1999.

Thompson, Ryan. The World of Famous Diamonds and other Famous Gems. 27032008. 17 Jun 2008 .

photo of Royal sceptre courtesy of http://www.royal.gov.uk/files/gallery/Fullsize/200652414440_MTnew_ceremsym_crownjewels_galleryvi.jpg

Blenheim Palace: the Gardens

The architectural genius, Vanbrugh, designed and built Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, and began the design project in the early 18th century (Nicolson, 214). The immense and grandiose palace, set on 2,100 acres of parkland, is called by some as “one of the most extraordinary feats of architecture” (Nicolson, 216). In 1704 the first Duke of Marlborough defeated King Louis XIV’s army at the village of Blindheim. As a reward for his national service, Queen Anne awarded him with a house, or palace, on the royal manor of Woodstock (Nicolson, 214). The duke had the choice as to whom he wanted to design his future home, and chose Vanbrugh to undertake such a task (Nicolson, 214).

Vanbrugh evidently paid a lot of attention to the exterior of the baroque-style palace, nicely juxtaposing the baroque-style architecture with the natural beauty of its English setting (Nicolson, 216). He transformed the royal hunting forest into a park and installed a large bridge which, he determined, would be the finest bridge in Europe.

Although the palace at Blenheim is an architectural masterpiece, the extensive grounds and beautifully landscaped gardens are what really caught my eye. On the Blenheim estate there is the second largest hedge maze in the world, a butterfly house, Rose Garden, lake, life-size chess game, putting green, railroad tracks with an operating train, and smaller enclosed gardens with beautiful topiaries and trimmed hedges in the shape of birds.

Henry Wise was gardener to Queen Anne in the 18th century, and is primarily responsible for the French-style, ornamental garden designs closely surrounding the palace – much like those at Versailles (91). Elaborate hedges, brightly-colored gravel, and perfectly manicured lawns was Wise’s original style for the gardens (Aird, 91). Cones of yew, flowers and fountains created the design of the gardens (Aird, 92).

The gardens, as I saw them, were not created in their current style until well after the time of the first Duke of Marlborough. After Wise finished his French-style, garden masterpiece, his designs were very outdated, and the trend became a much more natural-look (91). At the time of the fourth Duke of Marlborough’s residence at Blenheim Palace, a landscape architect – Capability Brown – was commissioned to add more to Blenheim’s extensive grounds (Aird, 91). Capability Brown was hired by the fourth duke to beautify even more the surroundings of the palace and to form the lakes on either side which gave the bridge installed by Vanbrugh a clear purpose (Nicolson, 223). Brown dammed the Glyme River, thus creating a lake beneath Duchene’s garden (Aird, 91). Brown focused more on trees, woods and grass to serve as the landscape (Aird, 91).

Brown designed Victorian-style gardens with formal beds as a mass of color (Leapman, 27).
In the beginning of the 20th century, the ninth Duke of Marlborough commissioned French architect Achille Duchene to plan out the formal gardens, including the fantastic fountains and patterned beds (Leapman, 246). Duchene planned the gardens immediately on either side of the palace in the tradition of Andre Le Notre (Nicolson, 221). Duchene’s vision for the Blenheim palace gardens echoes back to Wise’s original French-style masterpiece (Aird, 91). Today, closely surrounding the palace are the French-style gardens, and as the estate spans outward, the more natural, designs of Brown are seen (Aird, 92).

Works Cited

Aird, Malcolm, et. al. "Blenheim."Treasures of Britain. Drive Publications Limited, London:1968.

Leapman, Michael. Portrait of Britain. New York City: DK Publishing Inc., 1999.

Nicolson, Nigel. “Great Houses of Britain.” The National Trust & Weidenfeld and Nicolson: 1978.

Stratford-upon-Avon: the Short-Lived start and education of Shakespeare

A two-hour train ride from London is a lengthy distance to walk, but so it was for William Shakespeare in the late 16th, early 17th centuries.

Both William’s father and mother were illiterate (“Elizabethan”). When William’s father John was elected as Bailiff of the Borough, it is said that he was presented with the opportunity to send his children to school free of charge (“Elizabethan”). William attended the Edward IV Grammar School from 1571 at the age of 7, until he was 14 – the age range in which children attended Grammar Schools (“Elizabethan”). The system of education in England, at the time of Shakespeare, depended upon the views and religious beliefs of the currently ruling monarch – Queen Elizabeth I was a liberal Protestant (“Elizabethan”).

As a schoolboy during the Elizabethan era, William would have attended a Petty School in which he and his schoolmates learned basic societal norms and procedures, like polite table manners, and they were also required to memorize passages from a book which was in circulation at the time of Elizabeth I outlining the details of the Christian faith. – which technique was meant to produce a ‘good’ Christian student (“Elizabethan”).

After completing his time at the Petty School, William attended the Edward IV Grammar School in Stratford-upon-Avon. At Grammar School children were taught the basics of Latin, which skill could have allowed him to work as a page in the court, or a bounden prentice (Schoenbaum, 73). It is supposed that William acted as an apprentice to his father at some point (Schoenbaum, 73). As William acted as an apprentice to his glover father, his lessons on leather and skins carries over into his writings, such as his reference in Hamlet to parchment being made from sheep skins, thus indicating how much Shakespeare drew from his observational knowledge when writing (Schoenbaum, 75).

Shakespeare’s formal education also taught him the parts of speech, and as soon as spellings became standard and consistent children were taught spelling. Later on children would have learned sentence structure and other advanced writing skills. The teachings and theories of great philosophical masters, such as Horace and Virgil, were also learned in this period of Grammar School (“Elizabethan”). The biographies and accomplishments of great leaders, such as Caesar, were also studied because of the belief that their morals and accomplishments were relevant to the Elizabethan person.

The future founder of Corpus Christi College, Richard Fox, was initially a teacher at the Edward IV Grammar School. Fox and other notable academicians were teachers at the Edward IV at the beginnings of their teaching careers. Keeping this in mind, it is no wonder that literary geniuses, such as Shakespeare, were so mature and adept at writing because they had such experiences with writing masterpieces at young ages.

Six o’clock in the morning until 5 o’clock at night with a two hour break at midday. Shakespeare was used to teaching styles that emphasized repetition and constant examination (“Elizabethan”). Punishments were given if students were found to speak English, as Latin was the only accepted language at designated times at school (“Elizabethan”). Shakespeare’s run-ins with drama only occurred on an end-of-term basis when he and his classmates would act out classical plays.

At the end of his grammar school career, Shakespeare could have attended university with other classmates had it not been for his father’s financial debts as well as his fallen favor in the community. Shakespeare did not attend a university, and therefore, his formal schooling only lasted until the age of 14 (“Elizabethan”). At the age of 15, Shakespeare was first confronted with the dilemma of earning his own living (Schoenbaum, 73).

Some contemporary historians speculate that Shakespeare was brought to London to work in the theatre because of his Catholic religion, where many followers of the “old faith” dwelled (Kermode, 35). How he got to London by means of payment or transportation no one is certain (Kermode, 35). His roots in Stratford-upon-Avon, however, are remembered and revered even in this day.

Works Cited

"Elizabethan Education - The Childhood & Education of William Shakespeare ." William Shakespeare: The Complete Works. 2005. William-Shakespeare info. 5 Jun 2008 .

Kermode, Frank. “The Age of Shakespeare.” Modern Library: New York, 2004.

Schoenbaum, S. William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

Bath: The Roman Baths

They are known as some of the finest thermal spas of the ancient world (Bath). The Sacred Spring, Roman Temple, Roman bath house and Georgian Pump Room are the rooms which make up the Roman Baths at Bath (Bath). Upon entering the area which surrounds the main bath, I was amazed at the beauty of the bathing facility. I also tried to imagine what the bath-scene was like in the days of the Roman occupation, as well as the time of the 18th century when many city dwellers vacationed and planned to ‘take the waters’ with the intention to cure whatever ailed them.

The Romans founded and settled in many British cities, including Bath, England. The Roman Baths, also known as Aquae Sulis, were built between the 1st and 4th centuries around a natural hot spring (Portrait, 284). The sacred spring portion of the bath complex is currently enclosed by a reservoir named the King’s Bath (Portrait, 284). Water from the spring runs into the main bath at a constant temperature of 115 degrees Fahrenheit (Halliday, 17). Bath was a small town when the Romans arrived, but it was known as one of the finest architectural centers around because of the great temple and Bath house (Halliday, 17).

These baths originated in the Roman times, but the natural hot spring which feeds the baths was considered sacred by the Celtics, who inhabited the area long before the Romans (web). According to the tale King Bladud was cast out from his Kingdom upon contracting leprosy in 860 BC. The king was healed once he “imitated his swine and rolled in the hot mud at Bath” (Leapman, 260). The Celtics believed the area was a sacred site to the water goddess Sulis, and it was believed that the spring possessed natural, curative powers (“The Roman”).

In AD 70 the Romans consolidated the area by building a circular, lead-lined reservoir (“The Roman”). They also built a temple to the goddess Sulis Minerva who was a combination of Sulis’ attributes as well as the Roman goddess Minerva’s attributes (Leapman, 260). The dedication of the baths to the goddesses was evidently very important as I saw a Roman relic of the head of the goddess Minerva in the Roman Bath museum.

There was also a governmental district established at the baths, as well as a temple and altar – forming a sanctuary. After the initial construction of the baths, a vaulted chamber was added over the reservoir, the baths were extended, and the timber roofs were replaced with stones and tiles (“The Roman”). By the third century, the Roman Baths looked considerably different than they did when they were first constructed, as improvements and remodels occurred frequently (“The Roman”). Over the years, however, due to the lack of maintenance the drainage system failed and the baths were filled with black mud for several centuries (“The Roman”).

In later Saxon times, a nunnery, monastery and later on, an abbey were constructed on land surrounding the baths (“The Roman”). People were often encouraged to take the waters at the Roman Baths for medicinal purposes, but when Queen Anne of Denmark visited Bath in 1615, she established Bath as a fashionable destination to visit (“The Roman”). Visits to Bath were very common in the 18th century, and several building projects came about to extend the bathing facilities - transforming the bath complex and the whole town of Bath (“The Roman”). In 1880 the original Roman Bath complex was unearthed, and the Great Bath, Circular Bath, as well as the medieval King's Bath are on view to the public today (“The Roman”). The museum at the Roman Baths is a converted Methodist Chapel (Leapman, 261). The rows of pillars, statues, and concert room were late 19th century additions (“The Roman”).

Works Cited

Bath and North East Somerset Council. The Roman Baths. Bath and North East Somerset Council. 17 Jun 2008 . Official

Halliday, F.E. An Illustrated Cultural History of England. London: Thames and Hudson, 1967.

Leapman, Michael. Great Britain. New York City: DK Publishing Inc., 1995.

Leapman, Michael. Portrait of Britain. New York City: DK Publishing Inc., 1999.

"The Roman Baths, Bath." The Heritage Trail. 2007. The Heritage Trail: Britain's Premiere Independent Heritage Website. 17 Jun 2008 .

The Globe Theater – an Architectural Achievement Time and Again

‘‘To take full advantage of reading Shakespeare, we must cultivate both the mind’s ear and the mind’s eye; we must learn to hear the verse spoken aloud as we read it, and also to see the drama enacted in an imaginary theatre’’ (Levin, 15). Shakespeare’s masterpieces are meant to be seen, and no better venue could be had for viewing his theatrical productions than at the Globe Theater.

At the time the Globe was built, it was considered to be the “most magnificent theater that London had ever seen” (Online).
While viewing A Midsummer Night’s Dream at the Globe, I was particularly impressed by the architecture and structural design of this magnificent theater. The orchestra performed in a raised balcony, the classic wall paintings and decorations were very appropriately selected for the feelings evoked by Shakespeare’s plays. Even the seating options made this theater a very unified place, as both poor and rich spectators were able to attend performances because of the inexpensive groundling ticket option.

When the original Globe Theater was being constructed in 1599 by the carpenter Peter Smith, (Online), the Globe’s structural emphasis was on horizontal lines, in order to bring the “actors and the spectators together in a vital interrelationship” (Levin, 15). In 1613 the original Globe Theater met a tragic end when it was burnt to the ground by a cannonade and fireworks gone awry during a performance of Henry VIII (Gener, 12). The Globe was, however, rebuilt as an open-air theater, which generally provoked more flamboyant acting (Levin, 15), and also allowed the reality of the play to come to life for the audience with the use of the actual moon, sun and other natural conditions.

The pillars on top of the stage not only serve as a support for the stage cover, but they would also be used as props in theatrical productions (Levin, 15). During the Globe’s reconstruction phase, errors occurred when the designers constructed it in a more Tudor cottage-style, whereas it really was originally more Baroque with arches, pilasters, etc. (Levin, 16).

Shakespeare was well-aware of the unique and beautiful venue he had at his disposal, and it has been said that he created his plays with the Globe in mind” (Online). The closed structure with an open-courtyard, where the stage stands, has standing room on the ground-level, and covered seating on the edges, allowing room for approximately 2000 attendees (Online).
The space under and behind the stage was used for producing special effects, creating storage and allowing space for costume changes (Online). The Globe was re-built a year after it was burned down, but it was torn down in 1644, just 30 years after it was rebuilt and a brewery now stands where the 17th century Globe once stood (Online).

The present-day Globe Theater was inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II on 12 June 1997 (Online). It's construction came about as a result of an American actor named Sam Wanamaker who visited London in the 1940's and was disappointed to find there was no marker for the site in which the 17th century Globe Theater stood. Construction of the new theater did not begin until the 1980’s and traditional 17th century building techniques and materials were used, and safety precautions were taken such as fire-proofing the thatched roof (Online).

Works Cited

Gener, Randy. “As the Globe Turns.” American Theatre. 24:4, April 2007.

Levin, Harry. "General Introduction."The Riverside Shakespeare. 2nd ed.. 1997.

Online Shakespeare. "The Globe Theatre of 1599." Online Shakespeare. 2003. Shakespeare Online. 16 Jun 2008 .

Imperial War Museum: Holocaust Exhibit

The Imperial War Museum exhibits material about the wars involving Britain and its commonwealths from the First World War until present day (Imperial). Upon entering the museum, airplanes, single-occupancy submarines, and tanks used in world conflicts in which Britain was a participant are on display. Several hallways leading from the main foyer direct attendees to various exhibits, such as the World War I and II exhibits, as well as the Holocaust Exhibit.
While going through the Holocaust exhibit, I was impressed by the great care that was evidently taken to ensure accuracy, as well as the power of the exhibit to evoke feelings conducive to learning about the Nazi occupations and atrocities, as well as the victims of such atrocities, during World War II. I learned so much about the atrocities and crimes of the Holocaust, and will always remember the emotions this exhibit evoked in me.

There were many original relics on display, such as concentration camp uniforms of those imprisoned, a glass case full of victims’ shoes, and other personal belongings of Holocaust victims; all of which contributed to giving the exhibit a much more humanistic and real feeling. There were also such things on display as a boxcar which took hundreds of people to concentration camps, a miniature display of the Auschwitz concentration camp, several videos of concentration camp survivors telling their stories, as well as farewell letters that were oftentimes found by the sides of railroads. The exhibit also took a British focus by detailing the progress of news reaching newspapers about the Holocaust, as well as Britain’s involvement in the war.

As a result of viewing this exhibit, I believe I learned the most about the Nazi’s rise to power. A hindrance to negotiations with Germany nearing the end of World Ward I was from the “question of annexations consequent on the success enjoyed by the German armies during the opening months (Wood, 336). After Germany’s defeat, the German colonies were dispersed among the allies (Wood, 345), further adding to the humiliation and decreased power the Germans endured. One book about World War II says the Treaty of Versailles “imprisoned Germany” (Sulzberger, 1) Measures were also taken to “ensure against the revival of German military power” (Wood, 345), such as soldier reductions, a ban on the country’s use of weapons like tanks and heavy artillery, as well as the dismantling of the German fortification at Heligoland(Wood, 345). All measures taken contributed insult to injury, and the morale of the German people was at an all-time low.

This vulnerability and low confidence provided a perfect breeding ground for a leader like Adolf Hitler. In his earlier years Hitler was imprisoned for a failed coup attempt. It was while he was in prison that he wrote his notorious Mein Kampf . He became popular as a result of his work, and nearly 5 million copies were sold. His position as leader of the Nazi Party was augmented by the success of this piece of editorial fiction, and Hitler’s power was on the rise.
Many German followers of Hitler were impressed by his promise to instill the country with confidence by increasing their national power. Hitler also gave a sense of direction and promised achievable glory to a humiliated people.

There was also a huge feeling of anti-Semitism which existed in Europe during this time. Although the origin of these anti-Semitic feelings in Europe were not as detailed as other parts of the exhibit, it did say that anti-Semitic feelings have existed in Europe for centuries.
With Hitler’s increased power, came a renewed belief in Julius Frobel’s 1848 statement: “The German nation is sick of principles and doctrines, literary existence and theoretical greatness. What it wants is power” (Sulzberger, 3). The exhibit at the Imperial War Museum compared how the atrocities of the Holocaust were the result of this first time of using industrial methods of mass exterminations.

Works Cited

Imperial War Museum, "About Us." Imperial War Museum. 5 Jun 2008 .

Sulzberger, C.L.. World War II. New York: American Heritage Press, 1970.

Wood, Anthony. Europe 1815-1960. 2. Harlow: Longman Group Limited, 1984.

Information on Hitler in last two paragraphs I learned from reading the info panels in the exhibit.

Picture inside the Holocaust Exhibit courtesy of: http://www.untoldlondon.org.uk/diversity/logos/3ee03f19435a7646c38aecb68f60b974.jpg